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Literary characteristics of the Psalms
1. Parallelism
The Psalms are written in poetry. They do not rhyme in sound as traditional poetry does, but instead rhyme in thought or meaning, which is known as 'parallelism'. This is when a poetic line consists of two or three parts which run parallel to each other. It can be known as 'thought rhyme', balancing thought against thought.
There are two basic forms of parallelism: the first is synonymous parallelism, when the second line of a poetic verse repeats the thought of the first line, but using different words. Sometimes there are differences in the second line, so it does not parallel every point in the first line. Synonymous parallelism is found extremely frequently in the Psalms and in the prophets. One example is:
"The heavens are telling the glory of God;
and the firmament proclaims his handiwork." (Ps 19:1)
The second form is antithetic parallelism, when the two portions of a verse stand in contrast. Often the second line is a negative statement giving strong contrast to the positive affirmation in the first line. The second line often starts with 'but'. This is particularly common in Proverbs, an example is:
“A soft answer turns away wrath
but a harsh word stirs up anger." (Prov 15:1)
There are some more complex forms of synonymous parallelism including synthetic parallelism, when the second line develops or completes the thought of the first line:
"Then I will teach transgressors your ways,
and sinners will return to you". (Ps 51:13)
Another form is emblematic parallelism when one line is literal and the other is a metaphor or simile:
"As a father has compassion for his children,
so the Lord has compassion for those who fear him". (Ps 103:13)
A more developed form is climactic parallelism where part of the first line is repeated, but the emphasis comes where there is a departure from the pattern, leading to a climax.
Ascribe to the Lord, O heavenly beings,
Ascribe to the Lord glory and strength". (Ps 29:1-2)
or
"He sank, he fell,
he lay still at her feet;
at her feet he sank, he fell;
where he sank, there he fell dead." (Judges 5:27)
The most complex is introverted or chiastic parallelism which involves four or six lines which are arranged that the first corresponds to the fourth and the second to the third:
"Make the mind of this people dull, (A)
and stop their ears, (B)
and shut their eyes, (C)
so that they may not look with their eyes, (C)
and listen with their ears,(B)
and comprehend with their minds, (A)
and turn and be healed." (Is 6:10)
2. Meter
Meter is the rhythm of the words in poetry, which is very clear in the original Hebrew, but is mostly lost in translation. The lines are mostly in pairs, with several words being stressed. The commonest rhythm is 3:3 (three stresses in each line).
“Prove me, O Lord, and try me;
test my heart and mind.” (Ps 26:2).
A 3:2 rhythm is often used in laments, (three stresses in the first line, and two in the second), making a sad sound.
“The Lord is my light and my salvation;
whom shall I fear?” (Ps 27:1)
3. Strophe
Strophe is the way lines of a psalm are grouped into a stanza. These vary in length through a single psalm. It is often difficult to distinguish where one stanza finishes and the next begins. Most modern translations leave a space between the stanzas.
4. Acrostic Poems
In an acrostic poem, each verse, or group of verses, starts with the next letter in the Hebrew alphabet. This helped people to memorise the psalm, but is lost in the English translation. Acrostic Psalms include: Ps 9, 10, 25, 34, 37, 111, 112, 119 and 145, as well as Proverbs 31:10-31, Lamentations ch 1-4 and Nahum ch 1.
5. Refrains
These are repeated lines, which give structure to the psalm. These are some examples: 42:5 & 11 & 43:5, 46:7 & 11, 49:12 & 20, 56:4 & 10 & 11, 57:5 & 11, 59:6 & 14, 62:2 & 6, 80:3 & 7 & 14.
6. Inclusio
Inclusio is a special type of refrain, when the same line is repeated at the beginning and end of the psalm. Psalm 8 is a good example, "O Lord, our Sovereign, how majestic is your name in all the earth!" (Ps 8:1,9)
7. Technical interjections
These are words inserted into the text of the psalm, which mean little to us today. The most common is 'Selah', found seventy-one times in Psalms, and three times in Habakkuk. The meaning is uncertain, perhaps being a sign for an musical interlude, or a pause in the musical accompaniment. The root of the word is to lift up, or to raise up. It often occurs at a division in the psalm, but sometimes in the middle of a sentence. Other possible meanings are to raise the voice in pitch or loudness, or to repeat from the beginning. Another interjection is 'higgaion' (Ps 9:16, 19:14, 92:3, Lam 3:62), which also has an unknown meaning, possibly being an instruction to the instruments to play more quietly.
8. Emotion and imagery
Poetry uses very emotional language which is full of imagery, which makes it very memorable. Hyperbole is often used for dramatic effect, so it is necessary to guard against an overly literal interpretation.
9. Personification
In Hebrew poetry, human characteristics are often ascribed to inanimate objects, and to God himself. This gives dramatic and memorable descriptions, which are certainly not to be taken literally. Examples are: "And all the trees of the field shall clap their hands" (Is 55:12), and “At the blast of your nostrils the waters piled up” (Ex 15:8), and “in the shadow of your wings I will take refuge” (Ps 57:1).
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